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专业：博物学家
国籍：英语为什么著名：当时达尔文的理论极具争议性，现在支撑了许多关于自然世界的现代思想。达尔文认为，随着时间的推移，所有的生命物种都是由共同的祖先进化而来的。在与阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士的联合出版中，他们提出了这种进化的分支模式是由他称之为自然选择的过程产生的，在这种过程中，存在的斗争对选择育种所涉及的人工选择具有相似的影响。达尔文在1859年的《物种起源》一书中发表了这种通过自然选择进化的理论。这一理论得到了他周游世界的有力证据的支持。到19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数公众已经接受达尔文的进化论为事实。
出生：1809年2月12日出生地：英国什罗普郡什鲁斯伯里星号：水瓶座
死亡：4月19日，1882年（73岁）死因：心绞痛发作和心力衰竭
文章和照片狂吠！1859年，查尔斯·达尔文的进化论震惊了全世界。今天，正是他关于19世纪实践的著作，将震撼许多现代读者。1833年10月3日《婚姻生活》1838-11-11艾玛·韦奇伍德接受英国博物学家查尔斯·达尔文的求婚1839-01-29英国博物学家和《物种起源》作者查尔斯·达尔文（42）与艾玛·韦奇伍德（41）结婚查尔斯达尔文1820-05-11英国皇家海军比格尔号的下水，该船后来将带着年轻的查尔斯达尔文进行他著名的科学航行1827-10-15查尔斯达尔文被剑桥基督学院录取1831-01-22查尔斯达尔文在剑桥基督学院参加他的艺术学士考试，在171名考生中名列第十1831-08-24约翰·亨斯洛让查尔斯·达尔文和他一起乘坐1831-12-27英国皇家海军比格犬号，查尔斯·达尔文随船离开英国，前往南美洲进行考察，达尔文后来说这次航行“决定了我的整个职业生涯”1832-01-16查尔斯·达尔文在佛得角群岛的普拉约港着陆，1832-02-28年查尔斯·达尔文乘坐英国皇家猎犬号首次登陆巴西巴伊亚州萨尔瓦多镇，1832-02-29年查尔斯·达尔文穿过巴西巴伊亚的热带森林，把这次经历描述为1832-04-04查尔斯·达尔文乘坐皇家海军比格尔号抵达里约热内卢1832-09-22在他的皇家海军比格尔号航程中查尔斯·达尔文在阿根廷蓬塔阿尔塔发现了大量化石1832-12-18皇家海军比格尔号与查尔斯·达尔文乘坐的皇家海军比格尔号首次抵达火地岛1833-09-20查尔斯·达尔文乘坐英国皇家猎犬号抵达布宜诺斯艾利斯，1834-03-16查尔斯·达尔文乘坐英国皇家猎犬号穿越阿根廷内陆，1834年4月29日查尔斯达尔文的探险队第一次看到了巴塔哥尼亚的安第斯山脉的山顶1834年8月17日查尔斯达尔文乘坐比格犬号在智利到达坎帕纳山顶1835年5月12日查尔斯达尔文参观了智利北部的潘南塞罗铜矿1835年9月15日HMS Beagle，船上有查尔斯·达尔文，抵达加拉帕戈斯群岛1835-09-17查尔斯·达文斯兰德，加拉帕戈斯群岛查塔姆，1835-11-15查尔斯·达尔文到达塔希提岛，他后来在1835-11-16年《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书中阐述自己想法的地点摘自查尔斯·达尔文在比格犬号上航行时写给亨斯洛的信，出版于1835-12-19 HMS Beagle与查尔斯·达尔文乘坐抵达新西兰1836-01-12 HMS Beagle与查尔斯·达尔文抵达澳大利亚悉尼1836-02-06 HMS Beagle与查尔斯·达尔文抵达范迪曼岛（塔斯马尼亚）1836-06-01查尔斯·达尔文返回南非开普敦1836-07-08查尔斯·达尔文抵达圣赫勒拿小猎犬在拿破仑墓附近住宿1836-07-19英国皇家海军比格犬查尔斯·达尔文抵达阿森松岛1836-08-01，作为他们乘坐皇家海军比格犬回家旅行的一部分，查尔斯·达尔文返回巴西巴伊亚1836-08-17查尔斯·达尔文在海上5年后最后一次乘坐皇家海军比格犬1836-10-02离开南美查尔斯·达尔文乘坐英国皇家猎犬号返回英国1839-01-24查尔斯·达尔文当选皇家学会会员1858-07-01查尔斯·达尔文和阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士关于进化论的论文联合阅读林肯学会1859-11-24英国博物学家查尔斯·达尔文发表了《物种起源论》，从根本上改变了进化论和奠定了进化生物学的基础，这是著名的关于Charles Darwin进化论的辩论，在牛津大学博物馆举行，以Thomas Henry Huxley和Samuel Wilberforce主教的观点为主导，物理学家Stephen Hawking的骨灰在伦敦威斯敏斯特教堂被重新命名，在艾萨克·牛顿和查尔斯·达尔文的遗骸之间在Facebook上分享在Twitter上分享著名博物学家亚历山大·冯·洪堡阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士亨利·大卫·梭罗乔伊·亚当森路德维希·莱克哈特史蒂夫·欧文
托福阅读真题再现：
版本一：讲三种海洋reef的形成。这篇阅读是关于coral reef的 有三种类型atoll、fringe、和barrier reef。文章重点讨论atoll 因为它在非常深的水底生长 并且会包围一片水域成为lagoon 文章主要讨论了atoll形成的原因，解释是达尔文提出的一个理论：A其实是由F形成的。，后来虽然被科学家怀疑，但不久后的发现又证实了达尔文是对的。
版本二：
珊瑚礁(重点讲atoll(环礁)这个种类)
第一段说珊瑚礁有三种，atoll，barrier reef(堡礁) 和 fringing reef(岸礁)。atoll主要在印度洋附近，里面有大大的lagoon。barrier reef和fringing reef就哪里都有了。
第二段说根据达尔文的猜想，atoll说长在volcanic island上的fringing reef由于海水沉积放慢，所以慢慢形成barrier reef，最后形成了fringing reef。也解释了lagoon怎么产生的。虽然这可以解释三种coral的进化关系，但是并不能解释所有barrier reef和fringing reef的形成。
第三段说很多科学家质疑达尔文的猜想，但是一个科学家钻了3000miles的limestone然后发现了一个在volcanic island上面的atoll layer，证实了darwin的想法是对的。
第四段又重申这不能解释所有barrier reef 和 fringing reef的形成。
最后一段说在很多沉积很快的ocean里是不会积成atoll的。
解析：
解析：托福阅读考查对于学科类说明文字的理解。有时理论随着时间变迁会发生变化，或是与之相对的新理论产生。在解答文章时，可利用但并不能过于依赖自己已有的学科知识，避免出现过度推断，或是答非所问的现象，一定要注意尊重原文。
相关背景：
Atoll
Formation
See also: Formation of coral reefs
In 1842, Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made during a five-year voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. Accepted as basically correct, his explanation involved considering that several tropical island types?from high volcanic island, through barrier reef island, to atoll?represented a sequence of gradual subsidence of what started as an oceanic volcano. He reasoned that a fringing coral reef surrounding a volcanic island in the tropical sea will grow upwards as the island subsides (sinks), becoming an "almost atoll", or barrier reef island, as typified by an island such as Aitutaki in the Cook Islands, Bora Bora and others in the Society Islands. The fringing reef becomes a barrier reef for the reason that the outer part of the reef maintains itself near sea level through biotic growth, while the inner part of the reef falls behind, becoming a lagoon because conditions are less favorable for the coral and calcareous algae responsible for most reef growth. In time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface and the barrier reef remains. At this point, the island has become an atoll.
Atolls are the product of the growth of tropical marine organisms, and so these islands are only found in warm tropical waters. Volcanic islands located beyond the warm water temperature requirements of hermatypic (reef-building) organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface. An island that is located where the ocean water temperatures are just sufficiently warm for upward reef growth to keep pace with the rate of subsidence is said to be at the Darwin Point. Islands in colder, more polar regions evolve towards seamounts or guyots; warmer, more equatorial islands evolve towards atolls, for example Kure Atoll.
Reginald Aldworth Daly offered a somewhat different explanation for atoll formation: islands worn away by erosion, by ocean waves and streams, during the last glacial stand of the sea of some 900 feet (270 m) below present sea level developed as coral islands (atolls), or barrier reefs on a platform surrounding a volcanic island not completely worn away, as sea level gradually rose from melting of the glaciers. Discovery of the great depth of the volcanic remnant beneath many atolls such as at Midway Atoll favors the Darwin explanation, although there can be little doubt that fluctuating sea level has had considerable influence on atolls and other reefs.
Coral atolls are also an important place where dolomitization of calcite occurs. At certain depths water is undersaturated in calcium carbonate but saturated in dolomite. Convection created by tides and sea currents enhance this change. Hydrothermal currents created by volcanoes under the atoll may also play an important role.
Coral Reef
Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral reefs are colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in
groups. The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria, which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, coral polyps secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect their bodies. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters.
Often called "rainforests of the sea", coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for 25% of all marine species, including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates and other cnidarians. Paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas.
Lagoons
Lagoons are shallow, often elongated bodies of water separated from a larger body of water by a shallow or exposed shoal, coral reef, or similar feature. Some authorities (such as Nybakken) include fresh water bodies in the definition of "lagoon", while others explicitly restrict "lagoon" to bodies of water with some degree of salinity. The distinction between "lagoon" and "estuary" also varies between authorities. Richard A. Davis Jr. restricts "lagoon" to bodies of water with little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow, and calls any bay that receives a regular flow of fresh water an "estuary". Davis does state that the terms "lagoon" and "estuary" are "often loosely applied, even in scientific literature." Kusky characterizes lagoons as normally being elongated parallel to the coast, while estuaries are usually drowned river valleys, elongated perpendicular to the coast. When used within the context of a distinctive portion of coral reef ecosystems, the term "lagoon" is synonymous with the term "back reef" or "backreef", which is more commonly used by coral reef scientists to refer to the same area. Coastal lagoons are classified as inland bodies of water.
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